Vej Naturals

Vegan Health & Nutrition

As many of us know, a diet free of animal products puts us in a lower risk category for many diseases and chronic conditions, including cancer and heart disease.  But if we are not getting all the nutrients that we need, we can’t reap all the health benefits of our lifestyle. 

            This health page is intended to provide the information you need to reap the benefits of your vegan lifestyle, by arming you with the nutritional information you need to make the best choices for your body. It is not designed to serve as a replacement for necessary medical attention.  If you are on medication or currently managing a chronic health condition, it is always wise to speak to your health care practitioner before making changes in your current diet.  There can be interactions between nutrients and pharmaceutical medicine.  Whole Foods Market has a searchable online database for medication (and the possible interactions with nutrients and herbs), that can be accessed online at http://www.wholefoodsmarket.com/wholebody/healthnotes/index.html.

The information on this health page is designed to be as accurate, up to date, and informative as possible.  However, we acknowledge that information changes and there are occasionally errors in databases.  If you have any questions or concerns about the information contained herein, please feel free to contact us with your questions and comments.  Lisa Bouley, MS, the nutritionist responsible for the formulation of this page is available for consultations and can be reached at LisaBouley@Learntoeat.info.

Definitions of Terms

DRIs or Daily Required Intakes are set by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine, part of the National Academy of Sciences.  These Dietary Reference Intakes include RDAs (Recommended Dietary Allowances) and AIs (Adequate Intakes).

RDAs or Recommended Dietary Allowances are the average daily dietary intake level that is sufficient to meet the nutrient requirements of nearly all (97 –98%) of healthy individuals in each age and gender group.

AIs or Adequate Intakes are used when RDAs cannot be determined.  They are approximations or estimates of nutrient intake by a group of healthy people assumed to be adequate.

UL or Tolerable Upper Limits are the maximum daily intake unlikely to result in adverse health effects. These vary by age and gender, and specific health conditions can greatly affect needs.

Vitamins are organic compounds (contain a carbon to carbon bond or carbon to hydrogen bond), needed in small amounts for growth and maintenance.  These must be ingested in the diet, as our bodies do not synthesize them.  However there are a few exceptions to this rule, including vitamins that can be synthesized by bacteria in the body, such as biotin and vitamin K, vitamins that can be produced from other substances in the body, such as niacin and choline, and vitamin D which is produced by our bodies as a result of exposure to ultraviolet light from sunlight.  Vitamins are either fat or water soluble.

Fat Soluble Vitamins can be stored by the body, and therefore excess can be toxic.   These require fat to be absorbed, and people with inadequate intake or fat malabsorption may have problems with these vitamins’ absorption from food or supplements. 

Water Soluble Vitamins must be taken regularly because excess is secreted in the urine (with the exception of B12, excess of which can be stored for years, except in pregnancy and lactation)  Water soluble nutrients can be lost when food is cooked in water.  Consider using water that has been used for steaming or boiling vegetables as part of the water needed to cook a pot of beans or whole grains. (Do not store any saved cooking water more than 2-3 days, and store such liquid in the refrigerator in a closed glass jar or container).

Minerals are inorganic elements or compounds that play important roles in metabolic reactions and serve as structural components in body tissues. These must be present in our diet. All minerals have toxic levels, as well as necessary amounts.

 

Fat Soluble Vitamins

 

Vitamin A is a fat soluble vitamin that plays an important role in bone growth, reproduction, cell division and differentiation, and the immune system. 

            Preformed Vitamin A comes from animal sources (retinol) – excess can be toxic.  Provitamin A carotenoids, such as beta-carotene come from fruit and vegetables and are made into retinol in the body.   Beta-carotene in food has a Retinol Activity Equivalency ratio of 12:1 - 12 beta-carotene are equivalent to 1 preformed vitamin A.  Its conversion to Vitamin A decreases when the body’s vitamin A stores are high.  Excess beta-carotene from food isn’t associated with specific adverse health effects. 

Chronic diarrhea, inadequate protein, calories, iron, or zinc, and excess alcohol may increase our bodies’ vitamin A needs.  Fat malabsorbtion can interfere with absorption.  Deficiency can cause night blindness, dry eye and eventual blindness.  Skin changes can include rough, dry skin that is prone to infection.

 Toxic effects of too much vitamin A include birth defects, liver abnormalities, reduced bone mineral density, and central nervous system disorders.  Such toxic effects are only associated with preformed vitamin A, which only naturally occurs in animal products.  However a vegan could get too much vitamin A if using supplements which contain preformed vitamin A or fortified foods.

  If using fortified foods or supplements, check with the companies, as vitamin A is often sourced from fish oil or may be mixed with gelatin in production.  Even beta-carotene is sometimes mixed with gelatin in processing, and so it is crucial to read labels and contact vitamin companies that do not specify “vegetarian/vegan” on their labels, to be sure that the raw materials do not include gelatin or other animal derived ingredients.

Vitamin A is measured in Retinol Activity Equivalents – RAE, with the actual unit of measurement a microgram (mcg). 

The RDA of Vitamin A for the average adult male is 900 micrograms (mcg) and 700 mcg for the average adult woman.  The tolerable upper limit (UL) for preformed vitamin A for the average healthy adult is 3000 mcg.  Information regarding RDA or UL for all other age groups, pregnancy, and lactation can be accessed online from the Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, of the National Academies, at

http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.

Although beta-carotene in supplements is currently measured in international units (i.u.), this unit of measurement is not accurate when applied to food.  Buyer beware - current “Nutrition Facts” on beta-carotene rich foods such as packaged carrots or spinach, which are based on international units, are overstating the %DV by 600 percent!  A serving of carrots is currently labeled as containing 430% of DV, when in fact, it contains 71%. This issue will be soon addressed in a Letter to the Editor of the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, as currently consumers are misled by such product labels.   Beta-carotene in food should be measured only in RAE (retinol activity equivalents) which are measured in micrograms (mcg).   Additional information pertaining to Vitamin A can be found online available from the National Institutes of Health at http://dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/factsheets/vitamina.asp.

Excellent food sources of beta-carotene (contributing enough beta carotene to meet the average person’s vitamin A needs) include 1 baked sweet potato, 1 cup cooked carrots, 1 cup cooked spinach, 1 cup chopped raw carrot, 1 ¼ cup cooked kale, and 1 ¼ cup cooked collards.

Good food sources of beta-carotene (providing at least 50% needed to meet the average person’s vitamin A needs) include 1 cup cooked beet greens, 1 cup cooked turnip greens, 1 cup cooked winter squash and ½ cantaloupe. 

Significant food sources of beta-carotene (providing at least 20% needed to meet the average person’s vitamin A needs) include ½ cup cooked mustard greens, ½ cup cooked dandelion greens, 1 ½ cup cooked broccoli, 1 ¼ cups cooked frozen green peas, 1 ¼ cup romaine lettuce, 1 cup tomato paste,  and 1 sweet red pepper. 

Beta-carotene and vitamin A content of a wide variety of common foods can be found at http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869, the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20.   Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

 

Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin that regulates absorption and blood levels of calcium and phosphorus.  It is necessary to maintain a healthy immune system and plays a role in the regulation of cell growth and differentiation.                                                      

D2, ergocalciferol, found in some dietary supplements and fortified foods, is derived from yeast exposed to ultraviolet light.  D3, cholecalciferol, found in supplements and some fortified foods is derived from lanolin (from sheep’s wool and hide) or from fish oil and is therefore not vegan.  Vitamin D is measured in international units (iu) or micrograms (mcg) --1 mcg = 40 iu.

Vitamin D deficiency symptoms include rickets in children and osteomalacia (muscle aches and weakness and bone pain and weakness) in adults and secondary hyperparathyroidism.  Those at increased risk for deficiency include infants who are exclusively breastfed and do not receive vitamin D supplementation or adequate sun exposure, darker skinned people, the elderly, those who cover all exposed skin and / or use sun block whenever outdoors, individuals with fat malabsorption syndrome, including cystic fibrosis and cholestatic liver disease, those with inflammatory bowel disease, such as Crohn's disease, and the obese.  Season, geographic latitude, time of day, cloud cover, smog, sunscreen use, skin color, and age can affect how much vitamin D is produced.  People with inadequate fat intake or fat malabsorption may not properly absorb vitamin D from food.    

Symptoms of too much vitamin D could include nausea, vomiting, poor appetite, constipation, weakness, weight loss, confusion, heart rhythm abnormalities, and calcium and phosphate deposits in soft tissue.   However, in a vegan lifestyle, this could come only from too much supplementation or fortified foods.  One should consume no more than the tolerable upper limit, unless advised to do so by a health care professional.   The tolerable upper limit is set at 1000 international units (iu) for under 1 year old and 2000 for all others.  The current adequate intake (AI) of Vitamin D has been set by the National Institute of Health at 200 international units (iu) for aged 50 and under, 400 iu for age 51-70, and 71 and older are advised to get 600 iu per day. 

 Edible mushrooms, growing or just picked exposed to sunlight or ultraviolet light for even just 5 minutes produce significant vitamin D (One serving white button mushrooms produced 869% of the daily value, in a still ongoing study http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/12370708/.

  Vitamin D is found naturally in some animal products, but nutrition databases do not list any vegan food with vitamin D occurring naturally.  Therefore, at this time, based on available data, vegans must rely upon sunlight or fortified food to meet their requirements. UVB radiation (found in sunlight) triggers our body to produce vitamin D in our skin.  Sunscreen blocks the body’s ability to synthesize vitamin D from sun exposure.  The darker the skin, the more sunlight may be required to produce adequate vitamin D stores.  As we age, our ability to synthesize vitamin D may decrease.  Cloud cover and shade lessen the amount we synthesize.

Vitamin D can be synthesized by our bodies, when we obtain adequate sun exposure (without sun block).  This may require some planning, allowing for some unprotected sunlight.  According to Dr. Holick, of the Boston University School of Medicine, ”The most cost-effective and efficient method for preventing vitamin D deficiency is to have adequate exposure to sunlight. Some dermatologists advise that people of all ages and ethnicities should avoid all direct exposure to sunlight and should always use sun protection when outdoors. This message is not only unfortunate, it is misguided and has serious consequences, ie, the risk of vitamin D deficiency and increased risk of many chronic diseases. There is little evidence that adequate sun exposure will substantially increase the risk of skin cancer; rather, long-term excessive exposure and repeated sunburns are associated with nonmelanoma skin cancers. The amount of time for adequate exposure depends on time of day, season, latitude, skin pigmentation, and the area of skin surface that has no sun protection. Typically, the sun exposure of a person in a bathing suit of 1 minimal erythema dose (which causes a slight pinkness to the skin) is equivalent to ingesting 20,000 IU of vitamin D.  Thus, exposure of hands, face, and arms or arms and legs to 25% of a minimal erythema dose (about 5-15 minutes between 11 AM and 2 PM in Boston) will provide an adequate amount of vitamin D.” http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.com/inside.asp?a=1&ref=7812e1.

More information about vitamin D can be found online available from the National Institutes of Health at http://dietarysupplements.info.nih.gov/factsheets/vitamind.asp.

 

Vitamin E is a fat soluble vitamin that occurs in nature in 8 different forms, of which alpha-tocopherol is the most active form in humans.  It plays a role in protecting cells against free radical damage, is an antioxidant, and limits LDL oxidation.  Supplements can be natural (d -alpha) or synthetic (dl-alpha).  Natural has twice the activity of synthetic.  Vitamin E is measured in international units (iu) or milligrams (mg). 1mg alpha-tocopherol =1.49 iu.

Symptoms of vitamin E deficiency include neurological problems associated with nerve degeneration in hands and feet, nonspecific neurological deficits, and mild hemolytic anemia.  Blood levels of E may be decreased with zinc deficiency.  At increased risk for deficiency are those with fat malabsorption syndromes. 

Signs of too much vitamin E can include bleeding due to blood thinning, anticoagulant properties, muscle weakness, fatigue, nausea, and diarrhea.  Additional information about Vitamin E can be found online, provided by the National Institutes of Health at

 http://dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/factsheets/vitamine.asp.

The RDA of vitamin E for the average adult is 15 mg and the tolerable upper limit (UL) is set at 1000 mg for adults.  ULs for children and RDAs for children and lactating women can be accessed at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us, provided by the Institute of Medicine.

An excellent food source of Vitamin E is ½ tablespoon of Spectrum wheat germ oil which provides150% of the average adult’s RDA. 

Good food sources of vitamin E (providing at least 50% of the average adult’s RDA) include ¼ cup sunflower seeds or 24 almonds.                 

Significant food sources of vitamin E (providing at least 20% of the average adult’s RDA) include 1 oz hazelnuts, 1 ¼ oz pine nuts, 1 ½ oz dry roasted peanuts, 2 cups cooked pinto beans, 1 ½ mangos, 3 kiwis, 3 nectarines, 2 cups blackberries, 2 sweet red peppers, 2 cups cooked collards greens, 2 sweet potatoes, 1 cup cooked spinach, 1 ½ cups cooked broccoli, and 3 cups cooked kale. 

Vitamin E content of a variety of foods can be accessed on line at the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20 at http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869.   Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

 

Vitamin K is a fat soluble vitamin that is essential for blood clotting.   It also acts with vitamins A and D in bone remodeling and mineralization.

Long term antibiotic therapy, chronic diarrhea, impaired gall bladder function, liver disease, and fat malabsorption problems may increase risk of vitamin K deficiency. Newborn babies that are exclusively breastfed are at increased risk for deficiency.  Excess vitamin E can inhibit vitamin K activity.  Prolonged prothrombin (blood coagulation) time may indicate deficiency.

There is no known toxicity for vitamin K1, phylloquine (found in food and most supplements), or vitamin K2, menaquinone (synthesized by intestinal bacteria).  Vitamin K3, menadione, a synthetic, water soluble, vitamin K precursor, has been associated with interfering with glutathione, resulting in damage of cell membranes and injections of vitamin K3 have been associated with liver toxicity, jaundice, and hemolitic anemia.  Additional information about vitamin K can be found online, provided by the Linus Pauling Institute of Oregon State University at http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminK/.

The adequate intake (AI) of vitamin K for the average adult man is 120 micrograms (mcg) and 90 mcg for the average woman. There is no established tolerable upper limit.  The AI for children can be accessed online, courtesy of the Institute of Medicine, at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.

Excellent food Sources of vitamin K (providing more than 100% of the average person’s adequate intake) include ½ cup cooked kale, ½ cup cooked spinach, ½ cup cooked collards, ½ cup cooked dandelion greens, ½ cup cooked mustard greens, ½ cup cooked Brussels sprouts, 1 cup cooked broccoli, 1 cup scallions, 1 head Boston lettuce, 10 sprigs parsley, and 1 cup cooked cabbage.

Good food sources of vitamin K (providing more than 50% of the average person’s adequate intake)  include 1 cup green leaf lettuce, ¾ cup endive, 1 cup cooked okra, 1 cup romaine, and 1 ½  cucumbers.  Specific amounts of vitamin K contained in a wide variety of common foods can be accessed online at  http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869, the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20.  Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

 

Water Soluble Vitamins

Vitamin B1 – Thiamin is a water soluble vitamin that plays a role as a coenzyme in a reaction that oxidizes glucose to produce energy and cofactor in conversion of glucose to other sugars. This pathway is a major source of NADPH, required for glucose and fatty acid synthesis.

Mild thiamin deficiency symptoms include difficulty concentrating, irritability, depression, muscle weakness, and poor coordination.  Severe thiamine deficiency symptoms are found in beriberi and these include mental confusion, peripheral neuropathy, edema, muscle atrophy, tachycardia (rapid heart beat), cardiomegaly (enlarged heart), delusion, and psychosis.                                    

Thiamin requirements are increased in times of strenuous physical exertion, fever, pregnancy, breastfeeding, adolescent growth, malarial infection, HIV, alcoholics, possibly in those using diuretics, and those with  kidney failure on hemodialysis. Consumption of large amounts of foods with anti-thiamin factors, such as coffee, tea, betel nuts, and ferns can also increase one's risk of deficiency.

            Excess thiamin is excreted in the urine.  No tolerable upper limit has been established.  No toxic effects have been observed from food or supplements up to 200 mg of thiamin per day.  Parenterally (intravenous feeding), amounts that were 100 times the RDA caused headaches, convulsions, muscular weakness, cardiac arrhythmias, and allergic reactions.  More information pertaining to thiamin is provided by the Linus Pauling Institute online at http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/thiamin/.

The RDA of thiamin for the average adult male is 1.2 milligrams (mg) and female is 1.1 mg. 

RDAs for children, pregnant, and lactating women are available from the Institute of Medicine at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.

Good Food Sources of thiamin (providing at least 40% of the average person’s RDA) include 1 cup cooked green soybeans, 1 cup cooked green peas, 1 cup cooked split peas, and 1 cup cooked black beans

Significant Food Sources of thiamin (providing 20-25% of the average person’s RDA) include 1 cup cooked pinto beans, 1 cup cooked lentils, 1 cup cooked black eyed peas, 1 cup roasted chestnuts, 1 ½ oz Brazil nuts, 30 pecan halves, 1 ½ tablespoons tahini, 1 ½ cups cooked long grain brown rice, 1 ½ cups cooked oats, 2 cups cooked whole wheat spaghetti, 1 ¼ cups cooked quinoa, 3 mangoes, 3 cups pineapple, 3 oranges, 1 ½ cups cooked okra, 1 ½ cups cooked potato, 1 cup Jerusalem artichokes, 1 ½ ears cooked sweet yellow corn, and 3 cups cooked broccoli. 

Specific amounts of thiamin contained in a wide variety of common foods can be accessed at http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869, the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20.  Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

 

Vitamin B2 – Riboflavin is a water soluble vitamin that is critical for the metabolism of carbohydrate, fats, and proteins and central to energy production. It plays a role in the metabolism of drugs and toxins, and is required to synthesize niacin (vitamin B3) from tryptophan (an amino acid) and required to form methionine from homocysteine.   

Symptoms of riboflavin deficiency include sore throat, redness and swelling of the lining of the mouth and throat, cracks or sores on outside of lips and corner of the mouth, inflammation and redness of tongue, moist, scaly skin inflammation, formation of blood vessels in the clear covering of the eye, and decreased red blood cell count with normal hemoglobin size and level.  Those with hypothyroidism and adrenal insufficiency have impaired conversion of riboflavin to the coenzyme forms (forms that are usable by our bodies).  Lights used to treat jaundice in newborns destroy riboflavin and lead to deficiency.  More information pertaining to riboflavin can be found online, provided by the Linus Pauling Institute, of Oregon State University, at http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/riboflavin/.

The RDA of riboflavin for the average adult male is 1.3 milligrams (mg) and for the average adult female 1.1mg.  There is no set tolerable upper limit, since there have been no observed signs of toxicity in humans.  The RDA for children and pregnant and lactating women can be accessed online at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us, provided by the Institute of Medicine.

Riboflavin is destroyed by exposure to light, so be sure to store food sources of riboflavin out of the light.

Good food sources of riboflavin (containing at least 40% of the average person’s RDA) include 1 cup cooked mushrooms, 1 ¼ cup tomato paste, 1 ¼ cup cooked spinach, and 1 ¼ cups cooked beet greens.

Significant food sources of riboflavin (providing at least 20-25% of the average person’s RDA) include 1 oz almonds, 1 cup roasted European chestnuts, 1 ½ cups cooked broccoli, 1 ½ cups cooked collards, 1 ½ cups cooked dandelion greens, 1 ½ cups cooked  frozen okra,  1 ½  baked sweet potatoes, 1 ½ cups cooked summer squash, 1 ½  cups cooked green peas, 1 ½ cups cooked artichoke, 1 cup cooked shiitake mushrooms, 1 ½ cups whole grain yellow corn meal,  1 ½ cups buckwheat flour, 1 cup whole wheat flour, 1 ½ cups cooked quinoa, 1 cup cooked green soybeans, and 1 ½ cups cooked lentils. 

Specific amounts of riboflavin, contained in a wide variety of foods can be accessed at the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20, at   http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869.  Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

 

Vitamin B3 – Niacin is a water soluble vitamin involved in the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and alcohol to produce energy and is necessary for the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol. 

            Symptoms of niacin deficiency may include a thick, scaly, darkly pigmented rash which develops symmetrically in areas exposed to sunlight, bright red tongue, vomiting and diarrhea, headache, apathy, fatigue, depression, disorientation, and memory loss  Pellagra is late stage niacin deficiency - dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and death if not treated.  Deficiency is a result of inadequate intake of niacin or other nutrients needed to convert the amino acid, tryptophan, into the coenzyme form of niacin, utilized by the body.  1 mg niacin can be synthesized from 60 mg of the amino acid tryptophan, as long as other nutrients required for the conversion are present (including vitamin B6, riboflavin, and iron). 

            No known adverse effect has been observed as a result of food sources of niacin.  With supplements, nicotinic acid can cause flushing, itching, nausea, vomiting, and liver cell damage.  Immediate release niacin is less toxic to the liver than sustained release or timed release. Other symptoms reported, associated with nicotinic acid supplementation may include skin rashes, dry skin, low blood pressure, and headache.   Large doses may impair glucose tolerance and could elevate blood glucose. 1.5 - 5 grams per day (1500-5000 mg per day) have caused blurred vision.

Forms of niacin found in supplements include nicotinic acid, nicotinamide, and inositol hexanicotinate.  People with abnormal liver function, history of liver disease, diabetes, active peptic ulcer disease, gout, cardiac arrhythmias, inflammatory bowel disease, migraine headaches, and alcoholism may be more susceptible to the adverse effects of excess nicotinic acid intake.  Nicotinamide is generally better tolerated than nicotinic acid, although it does not have the cholesterol lowering effects.    Inositol hexanicotinate, no flush niacin, is another form of niacin that does not cause the usual flush; however there is not enough data to establish and verify its safety and efficacy.

Further information pertaining to niacin can be found online, courtesy of the Linus Pauling Institute, of Oregon State University, at http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/niacin/.

The RDA of niacin for the average adult man is 16 milligrams (mg) and for the average adult woman is 14 mg.    The tolerable upper limit (UL) has been set at 35 mg for the average adult.  Information regarding RDA or UL for all other age groups, pregnancy, and lactation can be accessed at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us, provided by the Institute of Medicine.

Good food sources of niacin (providing 40-50% of the average person’s RDA) include 1 cup whole wheat flour, 1 cup buckwheat flour, 1 cup tomato paste, and 1 cup cooked mushrooms.

Significant food sources of niacin (contributing 20-25% of the average person’s RDA) include 1 cup whole grain corn meal,  1 cup cooked pearled barley, 1 ¼ cups cooked long grain brown rice, 1 ½ cups cooked long grain white rice, 1 ½ cups cooked millet, 2 cups cooked bulgur,  2 cups cooked buckwheat groats, 1 ½ cup cooked wild rice, 1 ½  cups cooked lentils, 2 cups cooked split peas, 1 ½ cups cooked green soybeans,  ½ cup sunflower seeds, 2 cups roasted European chestnuts, 2 tablespoons peanut butter, 1 oz or 28 peanuts, 3 mangoes, 3 nectarines,  2 cups cantaloupe, 2 cups cooked artichokes, 1 ½ cups cooked shiitake mushrooms,  1 ½ baked sweet potatoes, , 1 ½ baked potatoes, 1 1/3 cups cooked frozen green peas, 1 ½ cups cooked frozen corn, 2 cups Jerusalem artichokes, and 3 cups cooked collards. 

Specific amounts of niacin, contained in a variety of foods can be accessed online at the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20, at http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869.  Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

 

Vitamin B5 – Pantothenic Acid is a water soluble vitamin that is necessary for the generation of energy from food.  It is also needed for the synthesis of essential fats, cholesterol, steroid hormones, acetylcholine (a neurotransmitter), and melatonin (a hormone) and is required for the metabolism of some drugs and toxins.

            Pantothenic acid deficiency is rare - observed only in severe malnutrition. Symptoms include numbness, painful burning and tingling in feet. headache, fatigue, insomnia, and intestinal disturbances.  There is no known toxic limit in humans. High intakes of 10 -20 g / day could cause diarrhea.

            Pantothenic acid content of food can decrease in heating and process.   Freezing, canning, or refining grains can cause losses of 35 to 75%.  Additional information pertaining to pantothenic acid can be found online at http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/pa/, provided by the Linus Pauling Institute, of Oregon State University.

The adequate intake (AI) of pantothenic acid for the average adult is 5 milligrams (mg).  No tolerable upper limit has been established.  The AIs for children, pregnant and lactating women can be accessed, courtesy of the Institute of Medicine online at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.

Excellent food sources of pantothenic acid (providing at least 100% of the average adult’s adequate intake) include 1 cup cooked shiitake mushrooms and 1 ½ cups cooked mushrooms.

Significant food source of pantothenic acid (contributing at least 20-25% of the average adult’s adequate intake) include ¼ cup sunflower seeds,  2 cups cooked black eyed peas, 1 cup cooked lentils, 1 cup cooked split peas, 2 cups cooked chickpeas, 1 cup cooked broccoli,  1 ½ sweet potatoes, 1 ½ white potatoes, 3 cups cooked collard greens, 1 ½ large cucumbers, 2 cups roasted chestnuts, 2 ears of corn,  2 cups cooked oats, 2 cups cooked buckwheat groats, 1 cup whole wheat flour,  2 cups cooked whole wheat spaghetti, 3 oz California avocado, and 3 bananas.

Specific amounts of pantothenic acid contained in a wide variety of foods can be accessed at http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869, the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20.  Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

 

Vitamin B6 – Pyridoxine is a water soluble vitamin involved in protein metabolism, red blood cell metabolism, immune and nervous system function, neurotransmitter synthesis, conversion of tryptophan to niacin, hemoglobin production, and maintenance of proper blood glucose levels.

            Severe vitamin B6 deficiency is uncommon.   Alcoholics have an increased risk of deficiency.  Symptoms occur during later stages and include dermatitis, sore tongue, depression, confusion, convulsions, microcytic, hypochromic anemia with normal ferritin (iron) levels, weakness, and tingling and pain in extremities. 

            Symptoms of toxicity can include weakness, numbness, and tingling of peripheral nerves.  Pyridoxine is stored in skeletal muscle.  Increased dietary protein increases B6 requirement. Studies show that young women require 0.02 mg B6 per gram protein consumed per day.  Additional information regarding vitamin B6 can be found online, courtesy of the National Institutes of Health, at

http://dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/factsheets/vitaminb6.asp.

The RDA of pyridoxine for the average adult, up to age 50, is 1.3 milligrams (mg).  The tolerable upper limit (UL) has been set at 100mg.   Information regarding RDA or UL for all other age groups, pregnancy, and lactation is provided by the Institute of Medicine and is available online at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.

Good food sources of vitamin B6 (providing 40-50% of the average adult’s RDA) include

1 cup buckwheat flour, 1 cup roasted chestnuts, 1 baked potato, and 1 cup tomato paste.

Significant food sources of vitamin B6 (contributing 20-30% of the average adult’s RDA) include 1 cup cooked pinto beans, 1 cup cooked lentils, 1 ½  cups cooked black eyed peas, 1 cup cooked onion, 1 cup cooked pak choi, 1 cup cooked broccoli, 1 cup cooked Brussels sprouts, 1 cup cooked spinach, 1 cup cooked winter squash, 1 ½  cups cooked  collards, 1 ½ cups cooked mushrooms, 1 ½ cups cooked carrots,  1 cup  cooked potato, 1 baked sweet potato, 1 red pepper, 1 banana, 1 ½ oz walnuts, 1 oz pistachio nuts, 1 cup whole grain yellow corn meal, 1 cup cooked brown rice,  1 ¼ cups cooked quinoa, and 1 ½ cups cooked pearled barley. 

Specific vitamin B6 content of a variety of foods can be found, courtesy of the USDA, on the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20.  http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869.  Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

 

Vitamin B7 – Biotin is a water soluble vitamin, necessary for the synthesis of fatty acids and the formation of glucose from fats and amino acids.  It is required for the metabolism of amino acids, cholesterol, and some fatty acids. Biotin is synthesized by bacteria, yeasts, molds, algae, and some plants.  

Biotin deficiency is rare (though it has been found in long term consumption of raw egg whites).  Symptoms of deficiency include hair loss, scaly red rash around eyes, nose, mouth, and genital area, anorexia, nausea, weight loss, muscle pains, localized loss of sensation, depression, lethargy, hallucination, numbness and tingling of the extremities, and possible impaired immune system function which can increase susceptibility to bacterial and fungal infections.  There is an increased risk of deficiency in those with impaired liver function due to cirrhosis. Deficiency results in impaired utilization of glucose. 

 Our intestinal bacteria produce biotin, but it is unclear how much can be absorbed by our bodies, from that synthesis.  Large doses of pantothenic acid may compete with biotin for uptake, due to its similar structure.  More information regarding biotin is available from the Linus Pauling Institute, of Oregon State University and can be found online at http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/biotin/.

The adequate intake (AI) of biotin is 30 micrograms (mcg) for the average adult. There is no set tolerable upper limit as it is not known to be toxic and excess is secreted in the urine. AIs for children, pregnant, and lactating women are available from the Institute of Medicine and can be accessed online at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.

Excellent food sources of biotin (providing more than 100% of the average adult’s adequate intake) include ¼ cup peanuts, 1/3 cup filberts, ½ cup almonds and, 2 tablespoons peanut butter.

Significant food sources of biotin (contributing 20-30% of the average adult’s adequate intake) include ½ cup cashews, 1 slice whole wheat bread, 1 cup cooked Swiss chard,  ¾ cup tomato sauce, 1 ½ cups cauliflower, 1 ½ carrots, 1 avocado, 2 cups papaya, and 2 bananas.

Specific amounts of biotin contained in common foods can be accessed at the website for Oregon State University’s Linus Pauling Institute Micronutrient Research for Optimum Health  http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/biotin/ and Northwestern University's Feinberg School's Nutrition Fact sheets http://www.feinberg.northwestern.edu/nutrition/factsheets/biotin.html.  Biotin content is not currently available on the USDA National Nutrient Database, at the time of this writing. 

 

Vitamin B9 – Folic Acid (folate) is needed for the metabolism of nucleic acids (DNA) and prevention of changes to DNA - important in cancer prevention. It is required for the metabolism of amino acids and synthesis of methionine from homocysteine.  Folic acid is necessary for the production and maintenance of new cells and prevention of neural tube defects (anencephaly or spina bifida in fetus).

            In folic acid deficiency, one has fewer, larger red blood cells (megaloblastic or macrocytic anemia).   Decreased oxygen carrying capacity of the blood may lead to fatigue, weakness, or shortness of breath   There is increased risk of deficiency in the elderly (low intake) and alcoholics  (decreased absorption and recycling), smokers (cigarette smoke decreases folate activity in lungs), and in circumstances which promote rapid rates of cellular replication (burns, injuries, pregnancy, prematurity, infection, blood loss, and cancer).        

No adverse effects are associated with excess folic acid from food.  Supplements in adults should be limited to 1000 micrograms (mcg) per day (1 milligram), unless otherwise directed by a doctor.  High folate intake can hide a B12 deficiency because it may correct the megaloblastic anemia, causing the abnormal red blood cells to appear normal.

Folic acid is highly sensitive to destruction by heat and light. Methods of cooking, processing and food storage can result in destruction of 50-95%.  Almost all is destroyed in the milling of grains.  Synthetic folic acid (found in supplements and fortified foods has been found to be more bio-available than naturally occurring folate in food.   1 mcg food folate = 1 DFE (Dietary Folate Equivalent).                                                    1 mcg folic acid with meal or as fortified food = 1.7 DFE.  1 mcg folic acid on empty stomach = 2 DFE.  Additional information about folic acid is available online at http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/folate.asp, provided by the National Institutes of Health.

The RDA of folic acid for the average adult is 400 micrograms (mcg). The tolerable upper limit (UL) for the average adult is 1000mcg.  Information regarding RDAs or ULs for all other age groups, pregnancy, and lactation is available from the Institute of Medicine and can be accessed at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.

Excellent food sources of folic acid (contributing 90% of the average adult’s RDA) include 1 cup cooked lentils and 1 cup cooked black eyed peas.

Good food sources of folic acid (contributing 45 – 70% of the average adult’s RDA) include 1 cup cooked pinto beans, 1 cup cooked chickpeas, 1 cup cooked black beans, 1 cup cooked navy beans, 1 cup cooked kidney beans,1 cup cooked green soybeans,1 cup cooked great northern beans, 1 cup cooked frozen okra, and 1 cup cooked spinach.

Significant food sources of folic acid (providing 20-40% of the average adult’s RDA) include 1 cup cooked split peas, 1 cup cooked collards, 1 cup cooked turnip greens, 1 cup cooked broccoli, 1 cup cooked beets, 1 cup cooked mustard greens, 1 cup cooked Brussels sprouts, 1 ¼ cups cooked pak choi, 1 ½ baked potatoes, 1 ½  cups cooked cauliflower, 1 cup cooked green peas, 1 cup cooked parsnips, 4 asparagus spears, 1 ¼ cups romaine, 1 cup roasted European chestnuts, 1/3 cup sunflower seeds, 1 ¼ cups cooked quinoa, 1 ¼ cups fresh orange juice, 1 ½ cups raw orange, and 1 ½ cups papaya.  

Specific folic acid content of a variety of foods can be accessed at the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20, available online at

http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869, Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

 

Vitamin B12 – Cobalamin is a water soluble vitamin, produced by bacteria.  It’s required – along with B6 and folic acid – for methionine synthesis from homocysteine. It’s necessary for the production of energy from fats and proteins, and needed for the synthesis of hemoglobin, a component of red blood cells.

Unlike other water soluble vitamins, a healthy body can store and recycle vitamin B12 well enough to not require an additional source for a number of years, sometimes even decades, in the case of former omnivores, with the exception of pregnancy and lactation, in which a daily source is needed for the growing baby and fetus, as babies and children do not have the years of stored up B12 that adults often do.  However, if someone has had a prolonged iron deficiency, this can damage the gastric mucosa and promote loss of gastric acid and intrinsic acid secretion (crucial for the absorption of B12) and hasten a state of deficiency.  Lifelong vegans generally have lower B12 stores and are more likely to require a daily, or nearly daily, source of B12.

Animal products contain B12, due to bacteria within that synthesize this vitamin. Nutrient databases, such as the USDA National Nutrient Database, do not list any plants as containing B12.  Although seaweed and algae contain B12, researchers claim that the B12 in these foods may not be accessible to our bodies, or not human active. Naturally fermented foods may contain B12, however, amounts may vary and this is not reliable. Nutritional Yeast can contain significant amounts of B12, when grown on a B12-rich medium.

Symptoms of B12 deficiency include numbness and tingling of arms or legs, difficulty walking, memory loss, disorientation, dementia, sore tongue, appetite loss, and constipation. B12 deficiency can take many years to show up, as healthy bodies are very efficient at recycling B12. However, ultimately, no B12 in the diet could lead to death. Pregnant women and lactating women need more per day and must have a daily source to assure the proper development of the fetus and later, the nursing child.  Deficiency symptoms can include symptoms of macrocytic anemia (fewer, larger red blood cells), though macrocytic anemia can also result from inadequate folic acid in the diet and may not show up when there is also an iron deficiency (blood cells are smaller than usual in cases of iron deficiency).

Early stage deficiency can be picked up by asking your doctor to measure B12-Transcobalamin Complex, through a blood test. An indicator of B12 status that picks up somewhat later stage deficiency is measurement of methylmalonic acid. Testing for macrocytic anemia is not a reliable test – as there can be more than one cause of macrocytic anemia, and the test for low total serum B12 is a late indicator of deficiency.  Warning: Damage to the nervous system may not be reversible at that point. More information regarding vitamin B12 is available from the National Institutes of Health, and can be found online at http://dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/factsheets/vitaminb12.asp.

The RDA of vitamin B12 for the average adult is 2.4 micrograms (mcg). There is no set tolerable upper limit.   RDAs for children, pregnant, and lactating women are available from the Institute of Medicine and can be accessed at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.

No toxic or adverse effects are associated with large food or supplement intakes in healthy people.  Only a small percentage is absorbed from high oral supplement doses. Approximately one percent of a vitamin B12 dose can be absorbed through passive diffusion, bypassing the absorption process that normally requires intrinsic factor and gastric acid, which is the reason most supplements are available in what appears to be quite high dosages. There is no established tolerable upper limit.

Excellent food sources of vitamin B12 (providing at least 100% of the average adult’s RDA) include 1 heaping tablespoon Red Star brand Vegetarian Support Formula Nutritional Yeast Flakes (Red Star^® Yeast – Products), 2 heaping tablespoons of Now Nutritional Yeast Flakes Red Star, according to nowfoods.com at http://www.nowfoods.com/index.php?action=itemdetail&item_id=3476, and 3 rounded tablespoons Kal Nutritional Yeast, according to its label. Not all nutritional yeasts contain significant amounts of B12, so check product nutrition facts.

 

Choline is a water soluble nutrient, necessary for structural integrity of cell membranes and is a precursor for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine.   It is involved in muscle control, memory, and many other functions.  It prevents accumulation of fat and cholesterol in the liver and as a precursor to betaine can reduce homocysteine levels.    

            Signs of choline deficiency include development of fatty liver, liver damage, and muscle damage, though such damage is reversible when choline is added to the diet.  Some choline is synthesized by humans, converting phosphatidyl ethanolamine to phosphatidylcholine. 1 -16 grams of choline per day can result in a fishy body odor, vomiting, salivation, and increased sweating.   7.5 grams per day had a slight blood pressure lowering effect and can result in dizziness or fainting.  Individuals with liver or kidney disease, Parkinson's, or depression might be at increased risks for adverse effects near the upper limit.  Additional information about choline is available from the Linus Pauling Institute, of Oregon State University at http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/othernuts/choline/.

The Adequate Intake (AI) of choline for the average adult man is 550 milligrams (mg) and 425 mg for the average woman.  The tolerable upper limit (UL) is set at 3.5 grams for adults.  The AIs and ULs for children, pregnant, and lactating women are available, courtesy of the Institute of Medicine and can be accessed at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.

A good supplemental food source of choline is lecithin. Now Foods Non GMO Lecithin contains 2300 mg phosphatidylcholine per 2 tablespoons, which provides 299 mg of choline, 60% of the average adult’s AI, according to Now Foods at http://ww.w.nowfoods.com/index.php?action=itemdetail&item_id=83376.

Significant food sources of choline (providing 10-15% of the average adult’s adequate intake) include 1 cup cooked navy beans, 1 cup cooked chickpeas, 1 cup cooked lentils, 1 cup cooked pinto beans,  1 cup cooked black eyed peas, 1 cup cooked split peas, 1 cup soymilk, 1 cup whole buckwheat flour, 1 cup cooked  Brussels sprouts, 1 cup cooked broccoli, 1 cup cooked collards, 1 cup cooked artichokes, 1 ½  cups cooked cauliflower, 1 ½ cups Jerusalem artichokes, and 1 ½ cups cooked frozen green peas. 

Specific amounts of choline contained in a wide variety of common foods can be accessed at the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20, http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869. Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin and is anti-oxidant (protecting from free radical damage).  It is required for synthesis of collagen, which is a structural component of blood vessels, tendons, ligaments, and bone. Vitamin C is required for the synthesis of the neurotransmitter, norepinephrine and the synthesis of the amino acid, carnitine. It is needed for the transport of fat for conversion to energy and may be involved in the metabolism of cholesterol.                              

            Scurvy occurs in cases of extreme deficiency and the symptoms include bleeding, bruising easily, hair and tooth loss, joint pain and swelling, and fatigue.  Vitamin C is sensitive to destruction by exposure to light, heat, air, or pro-oxidant minerals, such as copper and iron. Vitamin C improves the bioavailability of inorganic dietary iron and extends Vitamin E activity.  More information about vitamin C is available online, from the Linus Pauling Institute. at http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminC/.

The RDA for vitamin C for the average adult man is 90 milligrams (mg) and 75 mg for women.  The tolerable upper limit for adults is 2000 mg.  High doses can cause diarrhea.  The RDAs for children, smokers, pregnant, and lactating women and the tolerable upper limit for children can be accessed at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us, provided by the Institute of Medicine.

Excellent food sources of vitamin C (contributing more than 100% of the average adult’s RDA) include 1 sweet red pepper, 1 cup strawberries, 1 cup  raw orange juice, 1 cup raw grapefruit juice, and 1 cup cooked broccoli.

Good food sources of vitamin C (providing 50- 85% of the average adult’s RDA) include ¾ cup papaya, 1 pink grapefruit, 1 cup pineapple, 1 kiwi, 1 orange, 1 cup cantaloupe, 1 ½ cups honeydew, 1 mango, 1 ½ cups raspberries, 1 ½ cups blackberries, 1 cup tomato paste, ½  cup cooked Brussels sprouts, ½  cup cooked kohlrabi, 1 cup cooked cabbage, 1 cup cooked cauliflower, 1 cup cooked kale, 1 ½  cups cooked collards, 1 ½ cups cooked  rutabaga, 1 ½  cups cooked green soybeans, and 1 ¼  cups roasted European chestnuts.

Specific amounts of vitamin C contained in a wide variety of common foods can be found at the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20, at     http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869.  Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

 

Minerals

 

Calcium (Ca) is a structural element in bone and teeth.  It plays a role in mediating the constriction and relaxation of blood vessels and is necessary for nerve impulse and transmission, muscle contraction,         secretion of hormones, proper blood clotting, and normal heart rhythm.

            Calcium deficiency is not associated with clinical symptoms until extensive bone mass is lost. When skeletal calcium reserves are depleted, minimal stress can promote bone fracture.  Increased urinary losses of calcium may be due to higher protein, sodium, caffeine, or phosphate intake.  Low blood calcium implies abnormal parathyroid function or other medical causes.  Symptoms of hypocalcemia (low level of calcium in the blood) include numbness and / or tingling in fingers, muscle cramps, convulsions, lethargy, mental confusion, poor appetite, abnormal heart rhythm, and ultimately can cause death.

            The body will demineralize bone to maintain normal blood calcium levels, when calcium intake is inadequate.  Increased sodium intake increases loss of calcium in urine.  Each extra gram of sodium consumed per day may increase bone loss 1% per year.  As dietary protein intake increases, the urinary excretion of calcium increases.  Coffee has been shown to slightly decrease calcium retention             Increased calcium intake decreases gastrointestinal absorption of lead.  Oxalate (oxalic acid), found in some foods such as spinach (USDA list of high oxalate foods can be accessed at http://www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=9444) and phytate (phytic acid), found in whole grains and beans, may inhibit calcium absorption. 

Abnormally elevated blood calcium (hypercalcemia) has never been documented from food.  Mild hypercalcemia may be without symptoms or may result in loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, constipation, abdominal pain, dry mouth, thirst, and / or frequent urination. More severe hypercalcemia may result in confusion, delirium, coma and death if not treated. This has only been reported with consumption of large quantities of calcium supplements.   More information about calcium is available from the National Institutes of Health and can be accessed online at http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/calcium.asp.

The adequate intake (AI) of calcium for the average adult is 1000 milligrams (mg).  The tolerable upper limit for all over 1 year is 2500 mg. The AIs for children and older adults is available from the Institute of Medicine and can be accessed at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.

Good food sources of calcium (providing at least 25% of the average adult’s adequate intake) include 1 cup cooked green soybeans and 1 cup cooked collards.

Significant food sources of calcium (contributing 10-20% of the average adult’s adequate intake) include 1 ½ ounces almonds, 2 tablespoons tahini, 1 cup cooked great northern beans, 1 cup cooked navy beans, 1 ½ cups cooked pinto beans, 1 ½ cups cooked chickpeas, 2 cups soymilk,  ¼ block firm tofu-81g,  120g soft tofu, 1 cup cooked turnip greens, 1 cup cooked beet greens, 1 cup cooked dandelion greens, 1 cup cooked pak choi , 1 cup cooked mustard greens, 1 ½ cups cooked kale,  2 cups cooked broccoli, 1 cup cooked okra,  1 ½ cups cooked cabbage, 1 ½ cups cooked rutabaga,  1 ¼ cup tomato paste, 2 oranges, 4 kiwis, and 4 figs.

Specific amounts of calcium, contained in a variety of common foods can be found at the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20, at     http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869.  Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

                              

 Chromium (Cr) is a component of the glucose tolerance factor, which is required for maintenance of normal blood glucose.  As part of this factor, it acts synergistically with insulin to facilitate the cellular uptake of blood glucose and participates in glucose metabolism, enhancing the effects of insulin.

            Chromium competes for one of the binding sites on the iron transport protein transferrin.                                                             Iron overload in hematochromatosis may interfere with chromium transport.  Vitamin C may enhance chromium uptake.

            Chromium need may be increased by regular exercise. Chromium is lost in urine, sweat, bile and hair.  Excessive exercise or tissue injury may deplete tissue chromium levels. There is a lack of sensitive and accurate tests for determining chromium nutritional status. In most tests of people with impaired glucose tolerance, chromium supplementation was found to improve some measure of glucose utilization or to have beneficial effects on blood lipid profiles (cholesterol).  Foods high in simple sugars have been found to promote chromium loss.

            No cases of chromium toxicity from excessive dietary intake have been reported. Trivalent chromium, chromium III, from food or supplements, has not been clearly associated with adverse side effects.  Preexisting kidney or liver disease may increase the risk for adverse effects.  Hexavalent chromium, chromium (VI), used in industry, is a strong irritant and is recognized as a carcinogen when inhaled.   Information regarding chromium is available from the National Institutes of Health and can be found at http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/chromium.asp.

The adequate intake (AI) of chromium for the average adult man is set at 35 micrograms (mcg) and for the average adult woman at 25 mcg.  For children, older adults, pregnant, and lactating women, the AIs can be found online, courtesy of the Institute of Medicine, at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.  No tolerable upper limit has been established, due to lack of data.

Excellent food sources of chromium (providing more than 100% of the adequate intake for the average adult) include 2 cups cooked broccoli and 2 tablespoons Lewis Laboratories Brewer’s Yeast.  Information regarding Lewis Laboratories Brewer’s Yeast can be accessed online at

http://lewis-labs.com/products/facts/brewers-yeast-facts.htm.

Significant food sources of chromium (contributing at least 10% of the adequate intake for the average adult) include 1 whole wheat English muffin,  2 slices whole wheat bread,  2 cups mashed potato, 2 cups green beans, 2 cups orange juice, 1 cup grape juice, 3 ½ bananas, 4 medium apples, 1 ½ teaspoons dried garlic, and 2 tablespoons dried basil.

Specific amounts contained in these foods can be found, courtesy of the National Institute of Health, at http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/chromium.asp.  The USDA data base does not currently list chromium content of foods, at the time of this writing.

 

Copper (Cu) is a critical functional component of a number of enzymes.  It is an antioxidant, scavenging free electrons.  Copper is necessary for cellular energy production and helps maintain the integrity of connective tissue in the heart and blood vessels.  It plays a role in bone formation, iron metabolism, brain and nervous system function, neurotransmitter synthesis, metabolism of neurotransmitters, formation and maintenance of the myelin sheath, and melanin formation (pigmentation of hair, skin, and eyes).   

            Antacids may interfere with copper absorption. There is a lack of clear indicators of copper nutritional status in humans.  Anemia that is unresponsive to iron therapy, but corrected by copper supplementation is the clinical sign of deficiency. High zinc intake (50 mg / day) or more over an extended period may result in copper deficiency.  Copper deficiency that is clinically evident is rare.  Deficiency may result in low numbers of white blood cells, known as neutrophils and may be accompanied by an increased susceptibility to infection.  Osteoporosis and abnormalities of bone development have been seen in copper deficient adults and low birth weight children. Other deficiency symptoms could include loss of pigmentation, neurological symptoms and impaired growth. There is a risk of deficiency in premature infants, infants with prolonged diarrhea, infants and children recovering from malnutrition, and adults or children with malabsorption syndromes and cystic fibrosis. 

            Toxicity has occurred from storage of beverages in copper containing containers and water supplies. Toxicity symptoms include abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. More severe signs include liver damage, kidney failure, coma, and ultimately death.  Individuals with genetic disorders affecting copper metabolism may be at risk for adverse effects at significantly lower levels.  Additional information about copper can be found online at http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/minerals/copper/, courtesy of the Linus Pauling Institute, of Oregon State University.

The RDA of copper for the average adult is 900 micrograms (mcg).  The tolerable upper limit (UL) for adults is set at 10,000 mcg.  RDAs for children, pregnant, and lactating women and UL for children and teenagers is available from the Institute of Medicine and can be accessed online at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.

Excellent food source of copper (providing 80-100% of the average adult’s RDA) include 1 cup tomato paste,  ¾ cup cooked shiitake mushrooms, 1 cup cooked mushrooms, and 1 cup roasted European chestnuts.

Good food sources of copper (providing 50-80% of the average adult’s RDA) include 1 cup cooked chickpeas, 1 cup cooked black eyed peas, 1 cup cooked lentils, 1 cup whole wheat flour and ¾ cup buckwheat flour.

Significant food sources of copper (contributing at least 25-45% of the average adult’s RDA) include 1 cup cooked black beans, 1 cup cooked kidney beans, 1 cup cooked great northern beans,1 cup cooked navy beans, 1 cup cooked pinto beans, 1 cup cooked split peas, 1 ¼ cup cooked green soybeans, 1 cup soymilk, 1 ½ cups cooked pearled barley, 1 cup cooked quinoa, 1 cup cooked whole wheat spaghetti, 1 cup cooked buckwheat groats, 1 ½ cup cooked long grain brown rice, 1 ¼ cups cooked kale, 1 cups cooked turnip greens, 1 cup cooked beet greens, 1 cup cooked spinach, 1 ½ cups cooked green peas, 1 ¼  cups Jerusalem artichokes, and 1 baked potato. 

Specific amounts of copper contained in a variety of common foods can be accessed at the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20, at    http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869.   Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

                                                                                                                                                                  Fluoride (F) is not considered an essential mineral element and is not required for growth or to sustain life.  The primary action of fluoride is topical.   Fluoride in saliva can enhance remineralization of tooth enamel through interaction with calcium and phosphate. At optimal fluoride intake, bacterial enzymes are inhibited and their acid production reduced.  Some studies show less hip fracture in optimally fluoridated communities.  Fluoride can play a role in the prevention of dental caries and tooth decay. It is absorbed in the stomach and small intestine.  Once in the bloodstream, it rapidly enters mineralized tissue (bones and developing teeth), hardening tooth enamel and stabilizing bone mineral.  Inadequate fluoride intake increases the risk of tooth decay.  Many municipal water supplies are fluoridated due to the fact that the amounts found in our food supply and water before fluoridation is low. There is disagreement in the scientific community, as to the long term safety of water fluoridation. There are books and many web sites which detail both sides of this controversy.

Side effects of high dose fluoride include gastrointestinal irritation, joint pain in lower extremities, development of calcium deficiency, and development of stress fractures.   Sufficient calcium and D are needed to support high fluoride therapy.  Enteric coated fluoride lowered side effects. Excessive levels for long periods can cause skeletal fluorosis - which can cause joint pain, stiffness that may be a result of skeletal changes and crippling skeletal fluorosis that may result in calcification of ligaments, immobility, muscle wasting, and neurological problems related to spinal cord compression.   However intake usually exceeds 10 - 25 milligrams / day for at least 10 years for such crippling results - Metabolic or dietary factors may render some populations more susceptible. The lowest dose that could cause life threatening symptoms is considered to be 5 mg per kilogram body weight and could cause nausea, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, excessive salivation, tearing, sweating, and generalized weakness.  More information on fluoride (fluorine) can be found, courtesy of the Linus Pauling Institute, of Oregon State University, online at  http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/minerals/fluoride/.

The adequate intake (AI) of fluoride is set for the average adult man at 4 milligrams (mg) and 3 mg for the average adult woman.  The tolerable upper limit (UL) is set at 10 mg, so as to prevent enamel fluorosis.  AI and UL for children can be found, courtesy of the Institute of Medicine, online at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.  The adequate intakes are based on the amount found to reduce the occurrence of dental caries (cavities) most effectively without causing the unwanted side effect of tooth enamel mottling (dental fluorosis).

There is limited available data on the fluoride content of specific food. The fluorine content of plants is a function of the amount present within the soil in which they are grown.  Concentrated amounts of fluorine are found in tea leaves.  Seaweed is also a source of fluorine.  Nutritional information regarding the fluorine content of Maine Coast Sea Vegetables is available at http://seaveg.com/chart.php and can also be found on packages of their whole seaweed in natural markets. 

 

Iodine (I) is essential for normal thyroid function.  It is needed for synthesis of thyroid hormones which regulate growth, development, metabolism, and reproductive function. Thyroid hormone is needed for the myelination of the central nervous system.

            Most iodine is found in the ocean because iodine has leached away by erosion from older exposed soil surfaces.  Goitrogens are foods that interfere with iodine utilization or thyroid hormone production, and include some species of millet, cassava, soy, and cruciferous vegetables such as cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, Brussels sprouts, kohlrabi, turnips, radish, mustard, and rutabaga.                                           The goitrogenic activity of such foods is lessened by cooking.

            Iodine deficiency is the most common cause of preventable brain damage in the world.            Iodine deficiency disorders include mental retardation, hypothyroidism, and goiter.  Iodine deficiency is most damaging to the developing brain. Congenital hypothyroidism (cretinism- irreversible mental retardation or the neurological form - mental and physical retardation with deafness) is the result of maternal iodine deficiency.  Iodine deficiency during pregnancy is associated with increased chance of miscarriage, still birth, and birth defects.  Iodine deficiency increases infant mortality.  Iodine deficiency during infancy may result in abnormal brain development and impaired intellectual development.   Inadequate iodine intake may result in goiter and hypothyroidism in adults.  

            Symptoms of acute iodine poisoning include burning of mouth, throat, stomach, fever, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.  Iodine supplementation in iodine deficient populations may be associated with increased incidence of iodine induced hyperthyroidism.  Excess iodine intake is most commonly associated with elevated blood levels of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), hypothyroidism, and goiter.  .                     Elevated TSH is found at iodine intakes of 1700 - 1800 micrograms (mcg) per day.  There is an increased incidence of goiter at prolonged intakes of more than 18000 mcg (18 mg) per day.  Individuals with increased sensitivity to excess iodine intake are those with iodine deficiency nodular goiter or autoimmune thyroid disease and may be sensitive to intake levels considered safe for the general population, and they may therefore not be protected by the set tolerable upper limit.  Children with cystic fibrosis may also be more sensitive to the adverse effects of excess iodine.

The RDA of iodine for the average adult is 150 micrograms (mcg).  The tolerable upper limit (UL) for the average adult is set at 1100 mcg.  RDAs and ULs for children, pregnant, and lactating women can be found, courtesy of the Institute of Medicine, online at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.

Excellent food sources of Iodine (providing more than 100% of the average adult’s RDA) include

25 grams laver (nori), 3 grams dulse, 1 gram alaria, and ½ gram kelp  http://seaveg.com/chart.php

Good food sources of iodine (providing at least 40% of the average adult’s RDA) include

1 medium potato, 1 cup cooked navy beans, and 1 gram of iodized salt. The reason for iodization of salt is that not everyone consumes reliable iodine sources on a regular basis and iodine deficiency has been a problem for those who do not.   It is preferable to get your iodine from a natural source, such as seaweed, potatoes, or navy beans.  Many multivitamin/mineral combinations contain the RDA for iodine.  Additional information on iodine and specific amounts contained in food can be accessed at http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/minerals/iodine/index.html#food_source, courtesy of the Linus Pauling Institute.  The USDA National Nutrient Database does not list iodine content of food, as of the time of this writing.

                                                     

Iron (Fe) is required for the transport and storage of oxygen. Hemoglobin and myoglobin are iron containing proteins.   Hemoglobin is the primary protein found in red blood cells and represents about 2/3 of the body's iron. Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.  Myoglobin functions in the transport and short-term storage of oxygen in muscle cells.  Cytochromes are iron containing compounds critical to cellular energy production.  Functions of iron dependent enzymes include detoxification and metabolism of drugs and pollutants, energy metabolism, and antioxidant and beneficial pro-oxidant functions.  Iron dependent enzymes regulate physiological response to hypoxia (inadequate oxygen) and DNA synthesis.   

Vitamin A deficiency may exacerbate iron deficiency anemia.  Copper is needed for normal iron metabolism.  Calcium can decrease iron absorption in a meal. There is an increased risk of lead poisoning in children that are iron deficient.  Iron deficient individuals absorb a greater percent of nonheme (from plant sources) iron than those with sufficient stores.  Vitamin C and organic acids such as citric and malic acid, enhance nonheme iron absorption. Inhibitors of nonheme iron are phytic acid (could result in decreased absorption by 50 % - absorption from legumes can be as low as 2 %; however the effect in grains can be lessened by fermentation, as in sourdough breads), polyphenols (effect is reduced by vitamin C) , and soy protein. 

            There are three stages of iron deficiency.   In stage one, iron stores are depleted.   During stage two deficiency, functional iron is low enough to impair red blood cell formation.  Stage three is iron deficient anemia - inadequate iron to support normal red blood cell formation (Mycrocytic, hypochromic anemia - decreased hemoglobin content and cells are smaller than normal).   Symptoms from inadequate oxygen delivery include fatigue, rapid heart rate, palpitations, and rapid breathing on exertion.  The ability to maintain a normal body temperature on exposure to cold is impaired, in iron deficiency.  Severe iron deficiency anemia may result in brittle, spoon shaped nails, sores at corners of mouth, taste bud atrophy, and sore tongue.  Advanced deficiency may cause difficulty swallowing due to formation of webs of tissue in the throat and esophagus.

 There is an increased risk of deficiency in infants and children 6 months - 4 years.  Iron deficiency anemia in children results in poor cognitive development, poor school achievement, and behavioral problems.  High iron requirements are due to rapid growth rates.  Adolescents are at risk due to rapid growth and females due to menstrual blood loss.  Pregnant women are at risk for deficiency due to increased need as a result of iron utilization by the fetus and increased blood volume.  Severe anemia in pregnancy can be related to adverse outcomes such as low birth weight, premature birth, and maternal mortality.  Some with restless leg syndrome are iron deficient.  Others at risk for deficiency are those with chronic bleeding, celiac disease (nutrient malabsorption), h. pylori infection, those who have had gastric bypass, and vegans or vegetarians - Iron from plant sources is less efficiently absorbed.  Daily iron loss is greater in athletes involved in intense endurance training and may be 30% higher for those who engage in regular intense exercise.

            Hematochromatosis (a hereditary condition) involves iron accumulation in body tissues, which may lead to cirrhosis, diabetes, cardiomyopathy, and arthritis.  Some anemias cause iron overload - excessive dietary absorption of iron may occur in response to the body's continued efforts to form red blood cells (as in the hereditary condition, thalassemia major).  

Oral lethal dose of iron is 200 - 250 mg of iron per kilogram of body weight.  Symptoms of acute toxicity can be seen at 20 - 60 mg per kilogram of body weight.  Symptoms of overdose 1 - 6 hours after ingestion include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, tarry stools, lethargy, weak and rapid pulse, low blood pressure, fever, difficulty breathing, and coma.  If not fatal, symptoms may subside for 24 hours.  Symptoms may return 12 - 48 hours after ingestion and there may be failure in cardiovascular, kidney, liver, hematologic, and central nervous system function.  There can be resulting long term damage to the central nervous system, liver, and stomach, 2 - 6 weeks after ingestion.

 At therapeutic levels for iron deficiency, one may experience gastrointestinal irritation, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or constipation and stools may have a darker color.  When choosing supplements, if choosing an iron supplement, consider iron biglycinate, which is often labeled as “Gentle Iron” or “Non-constipating.”   Information regarding iron is available online, courtesy of the National Institutes of Health at http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/iron.asp.

The RDA of iron for the average adult male is 8 milligrams (mg) and the average adult female is 18 mg.  However,  the absorption of iron from a vegan or vegetarian diet can be significantly lower than from an omnivorous diet (10% compared to 18%), so a more realistic RDA for a vegan man might be 14 mg and for a vegan woman 32 mg, taking into account the lower absorption rate.  Consuming foods rich in vitamin C along with iron rich foods can increase iron absorption. The tolerable upper limit for iron is set at 45 mg for age 14 years and older  and 40 mg for children age 1 to 13   RDAs for children, older adults, pregnant, and lactating women are available, courtesy of the Institute of Medicine, online at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.

Significant food sources of iron (providing at least 10-25% of the average adult vegan woman’s daily needs – based on the assumption that a vegan’s needs are 1.8 times higher than an omnivore) include

1 cup tomato paste, 1 ½ cups cooked beet greens, 3 cups cooked broccoli,1 ¾ cups cooked Brussels sprouts, 1 ½  cups cooked collards,  3 cups cooked kale, 1 ¼ cups cooked mushrooms,  2 ½ cups cooked beets, 1 cup Jerusalem artichokes, 1 cup cooked spinach, 1 ½  baked potatoes, 2 cups cooked dandelion greens, 2 cups cooked pak choi, 3 cups cooked frozen okra,  3 cups cooked leeks, 2 heads Boston lettuce, 3 cups mung bean sprouts, 1 cup cooked black beans, 1 cup cooked chickpeas,  1 cup cooked green soybeans, 1 cup cooked black eyed peas, 1 cup cooked great northern beans, 1 cup cooked  lentils,1 cup cooked kidney beans, 1 cup cooked navy beans, 1 cup cooked pinto beans, 1 ½ cups cooked split peas, 300g soft  or 203g firm tofu,  2 cups soymilk, 1 ½ cups sprouted lentils, 3 oz almonds, 2 oz cashews, ¾  C sunflower seeds, 1 oz pumpkin seeds, 3 tablespoons sesame tahini, 2 oz pine nuts, 3 cups roasted chestnuts, 3 oz hazelnuts,  3 oz pistachio nuts, 135 grams coconut, 1 ¼  cups raisins, 1 cup whole grain yellow corn meal, 1 cup buckwheat flour, 1 cup whole wheat flour, 2 ½ cups cooked buckwheat groats, 1 ½ cups cooked oats, 1 ½ cups cooked quinoa, 2 cups cooked bulgur, 1 ½ cups cooked pearled barley,  2 cups cooked long grain white rice,  2 ¼ cups cooked whole wheat spaghetti, and 28 grams of unsweetened baking chocolate.

Specific amounts of iron contained in a variety of common foods can be accessed at the web page for USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20     http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869.  Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

 

Magnesium (Mg) is needed for more than 300 biochemical reactions in the body.  It helps maintain normal muscle and nerve function and keeps the heart rhythm steady.  Magnesium supports a healthy immune system and also keeps bones strong.  This mineral plays a role in the regulation of blood sugar levels and promotes normal blood pressure.  It is involved in energy metabolism, carbohydrate, lipid, and protein synthesis. 

            High doses of supplemental zinc may interfere with the absorption of magnesium.  A large increase in fiber intake may decrease magnesium utilization.  Gastrointestinal disorders that impair absorption, such as Crohn's disease, can limit the body's ability to absorb magnesium.   Chronic or excessive vomiting and diarrhea may result in magnesium depletion.  Renal disorders may result in excessive loss of magnesium in urine and such loss can also be a side effect of some medications and also can occur in poorly controlled diabetes or alcohol abuse.                                   

The earliest sign of deficiency is low serum magnesium level.  Later, symptoms may include loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, weakness, numbness, tingling, muscle contractions and cramps, seizures, personality changes, abnormal heart rhythm, coronary spasms, low levels of calcium and potassium in blood, retention of sodium, low circulating levels of parathyroid hormone, tremors, muscle spasms, and tetany (involuntary muscular contraction).   In older adults, magnesium absorption decreases and renal excretion increases. 

Adverse effects have not been identified from magnesium occurring in food.  However, abdominal cramping and diarrhea have been observed at supplemental doses above the set tolerable upper limit.  Risk of magnesium toxicity increases with kidney failure.   Large doses of magnesium containing laxatives and antacids could cause toxicity.  Signs of excess magnesium include changes in mental status, nausea, diarrhea, appetite loss, muscle weakness, difficulty breathing, extremely low blood pressure, and irregular heartbeat.   Further information about magnesium is available from the National Institutes of Health, online at http://dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/factsheets/magnesium.asp.

The RDA of magnesium for the average adult man is 420 milligrams (mg) and 320 mg for the average adult female.  The tolerable upper limit (UL) for the average adult is set at 350 mg, to avoid the possible abdominal cramping and diarrhea which has been reported for supplemental doses above this upper limit.  The UL for children and the RDAs for children and younger adults can be accessed at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us, courtesy of the Institute of Medicine.

Good food sources of magnesium (providing at least 25-35% of the average adult’s RDA) include 1 oz Brazil nuts, 1 oz pumpkin seeds, 1 cup cooked black beans, 1 cup cooked green soybeans, 1 cup canned tomato paste, 1 cup cooked spinach, 1 cup cooked quinoa, ¾ cup whole wheat flour, ½ cup buckwheat flour, and ¾ cup whole grain corn meal.

Significant food sources of magnesium (providing at least 10- 20% of the average adult’s RDA) include 1 oz almonds, 1 oz cashews, 1 oz walnuts, 1 oz pine nuts, 2 tablespoons peanut butter, ½ cup cooked black eyed peas,1 cup cooked chickpeas,  ½ cup cooked great northern beans, 1 cup cooked lentils, 1 cup cooked split peas, ½  cup cooked pinto beans, ½  cup cooked navy beans, 1 cup soymilk, 1 cup cooked wild rice,  1 cup cooked oats, 1 cup cooked long grain brown rice, 1 cup cooked bulgur, 1 cup cooked buckwheat groats, 1 cup cooked whole wheat spaghetti, 1 oz peanuts, 1 cup cooked artichoke,  1 cup cooked okra,  1 baked potato, 1 cup cooked summer squash, 1 cup cooked  yellow corn,  ½  cup cooked beet greens, 1 ½ cups cooked green peas, 1 ½ cups cooked collards, and ½ square baking chocolate unsweetened  - 14g.

Specific amounts of magnesium contained in a wide variety of common foods can be accessed at the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20  http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869.  Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

 

Manganese (Mn) is a cofactor for enzymes whose functions include antioxidant activities, metabolism of carbohydrates, amino acids, and cholesterol.  It is needed for the formation of healthy cartilage, bone, and collagen.

            Absorption of manganese from a meal decreases as iron content increases.  Deficiency has not been documented in humans.  Signs of deficiency observed in animals include impaired growth, impaired reproductive functions, skeletal abnormalities, impaired glucose tolerance, and altered carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. 

            No reported cases of toxicity resulting from dietary intake have been reported.  Individuals that have increased susceptibility to toxicity would be newborns and those with chronic liver disease. Additional information about manganese can be accessed online, courtesy of the Linus Pauling Institute, of Oregon State University, at http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/minerals/manganese/.

The adequate intake (AI) of manganese for the average adult man is 2.3 milligrams (mg) and 1.8 mg for the average adult woman.  The tolerable upper limit (UL) for the average adult is set at 11mg.  AIs and ULs for children can be accessed online, courtesy of the Institute of Medicine at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.

Excellent food sources of manganese (providing at least100% of the average adult’s adequate intake) include ½ cup whole wheat flour, 1 cup buckwheat flour, and 1 oz pine nuts.

Good food sources of manganese (providing at least 50-80% of the average adult’s adequate intake) include 1 cup pineapple, 1 cup cooked frozen okra, 1 cup cooked spinach, 1 cup roasted chestnuts, 1 oz hazelnuts, 1oz pecans, 1 cup cooked whole wheat spaghetti, 1 cup cooked brown long grain rice, 1 cup cooked oats, 1 cup cooked quinoa, and 1 cup cooked chickpeas.

Significant food sources of manganese (providing at least 20-45% of the average adult’s adequate intake) include 1 cup blueberries, 1 cup blackberries, 2 cups cooked broccoli, 1 cup cooked collards, 1 cup cooked beet greens, 1 cup cooked kale, 1 cup cooked bulgur, 1 cup cooked buckwheat groats, 1 cup cooked millet, 1 cup cooked green soybeans, 1 cup cooked navy beans, 1 cup cooked lentils, 1 oz walnuts, and 28g baking chocolate. 

Specific amounts of manganese contained in a wide variety of common foods can be accessed on the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20, at  http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869.  Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

 

Molybdenum (Mo) is a cofactor for a number of enzymes that catalyze important chemical transformations.   It is needed for the metabolism of sulfur containing amino acids, antioxidant capacity of the blood plasma, and the metabolism of drugs and toxins.   

            Biochemical signs of deficiency include low plasma uric acid levels, decreased urinary excretion of uric acid and sulfate and increased urinary secretion of sulfite. 

Gout like symptoms have been reported by some consuming 10-15 milligrams (much higher than the set upper limit) per day of molybdenum.  Further information about molybdenum can be found online at http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/minerals/molybdenum/, courtesy of the Linus Pauling Institute.

The RDA of molybdenum for the average adult is 45 micrograms (mcg). The tolerable upper limit (UL) is set at 2000 mcg for adults.  The RDAs and ULs for those less than 19 years of age can be found online, courtesy of the Institute of Medicine, at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.

Good food sources of molybdenum (providing more than 100% of the average adult’s RDA) include

¼ cup navy beans, 1/3 cup lentils, 1/3 cup black eyed peas, 1/3 cup split peas, ¼ cup black beans, and ½ cup kidney beans.

Significant food sources of molybdenum (providing at least 20% of the average adult’s RDA) include

1 cup cooked green soybeans, ¼ cup almonds, ¼ cup cashews, ¼ cup peanuts, and 1 cup tomatoes.

Specific amounts of molybdenum contained in a variety of common foods can be accessed at http://www.feinberg.northwestern.edu/nutrition/factsheets/molybdenum.html, courtesy of the Feinberg School at Northwestern University.  The USDA database does not list molybdenum content in their list of single nutrients in common foods.

 

Phosphorus (P) is a major structural component of bone and teeth.  It is needed for phospholipids, and is a structural component of cell membranes. Phosphorus is necessary for energy production and storage                                       and is required for storage and transmission of genetic information, and normal acid-base balance.  Only about 50% of the phosphorus from plants (in phytate form) is available to humans. The action of yeasts (fermentation) increases the bioavailability of phosphorus in food.  Phosphorus deficiency caused by inadequate dietary intake does not generally occur.   However, excessive, chronic use of calcium carbonate supplements, anticonvulsants, and / or aluminum hydroxide containing antacids can decrease the body’s absorption of phosphorus.                                       

             Hypophosphatemia (low level of phosphate in the blood) can develop in individuals with gastrointestinal malabsorption, diabetes, hyperparathyroidism, renal dysfunction, or alcoholism. Inadequate intake results in low serum phosphate levels and the effects may include loss of appetite, muscle weakness, anemia, bone pain, rickets, osteomalacia, increased susceptibility to infection, numbness and tingling of the extremities, or difficulty walking.  Severe hypophosphatemia may result in death and is seen in cases of near starvation.  

            The most serious effect of abnormally elevated blood levels of phosphate is the calcification of non-skeletal tissues and can lead to organ damage, mainly a problem in cases of kidney failure or hypoparathyroidism. More information about phosphorus can be found, courtesy of the Linus Pauling Institute online at http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/minerals/phosphorus/index.html#function.

The RDA of phosphorus for the average adult is 700 milligrams (mg) and the tolerable upper limit (UL) is set at 4000 for the average adult.  RDAs for children and UL for children, pregnant and lactating women, and older adults can be accessed, courtesy of the Institute of Medicine, online at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.

Good food sources of phosphorus (providing 25-50% of the average adult’s RDA) include

1 cup cooked black beans, 1 cup cooked kidney beans, 1 cup cooked great northern beans, 1 cup cooked lentils, 1 cup cooked pinto beans, 1 cup cooked chickpeas, 1 cup cooked green soybeans, 1 cup cooked navy beans, 1 cup cooked black eyed peas, 1 ½ oz almonds, ¼  cup sunflower seeds, 1 oz pumpkin seeds, 1 oz Brazil nuts, ½ cup buckwheat flour, 1 cup cooked oats, 1 cup cooked quinoa, 1 ½ cup cooked long grain brown rice, 1 cup cooked split peas, ½ cup whole wheat flour, 1 cup whole grain corn meal, 1 ½ cup cooked corn, and 1 cup tomato paste.

Specific amounts of phosphorus contained in a wide variety of common foods can be accessed at the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20, at http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869.  Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

 

Selenium (Se) is required for certain enzymes which play a role in antioxidant reactions, regulation of cell growth and viability, and the activation and inactivation of thyroid hormone - therefore essential for normal development, growth, and metabolism, through the regulation of the thyroid hormone. 

            Clinical signs of deficiency can include muscular weakness, muscle wasting, and cardiomyopathy (inflammation / damage to the heart muscle).  At risk for deficiency are those who have had large portions of the small intestine removed or gastrointestinal problems such as Crohn's disease, due to impaired absorption.  There are higher cancer mortality rates in areas with low selenium intake.

            Acute and fatal toxicities have occurred.  Amounts greater than 750 micrograms (mcg) of selenium per day can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of hair and nails, tenderness and swelling of the fingers, fatigue, irritability, skin lesions, tooth damage, and nervous system disturbances.  More information about selenium can be accessed online, courtesy of the National Institutes of Health, at

 http://dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/factsheets/selenium.asp,

The RDA of selenium for the average adult is 55 micrograms (mcg) and the tolerable upper limit (UL) for adults is set at 400 mcg.  RDAs for children, pregnant, and lactating women and UL for children can be accessed online, courtesy of the Institute of Medicine, at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us. 

Soil selenium content determines the amount of selenium concentrated in plant sources.  

An excellent food source of selenium is Brazil nuts. 1 Brazil nut provides more than 100% of the average adult’s RDA. 

Good food sources of selenium (providing 20-50% of the average adult’s RDA) include

1 cup cooked pearled barley, ½ cup cooked couscous, ¼ cup whole wheat flour,  2 slices rye bread, ½  cup  whole wheat spaghetti, 1 matzo, 1 cup cooked long grain brown rice, 1 cup cooked oats, 1 cup whole grain corn meal, 1 cup cooked pearled barley, 1 cup long grain white rice, 1 cup soymilk,  125 grams  soft tofu , 120 grams firm tofu, 1 ¼ cup cooked pinto beans, 2 cups cooked lentils, 1/3 cup cooked shiitake mushrooms, 1 cup cooked mushrooms,  1 cup tomato paste, 1/8 cup sunflower seeds, and 1 ½ tablespoons hulled sesame seeds.  Specific amounts of selenium contained in a wide variety of common foods can be accessed at the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20, online at  http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869.  Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

 

Zinc (Zn) plays important roles in growth and development, the immune response, neurological function, and reproduction. Zinc dependent enzymes play important roles in structure of proteins and cell membranes, cell signaling, and influence hormone release, nerve impulse, and transmission, and apoptosis (gene directed cell death).  Zinc is essential for protein synthesis, integrity of the cell membrane, maintenance of DNA and RNA, tissue growth and repair, wound healing, taste acuity, prostaglandin production, bone mineralization, proper thyroid function, blood clotting, and cognitive function.  Zinc is integral for fetal development and sperm production.

            Supplemental but not dietary levels of iron may decrease zinc absorption.  Calcium in combination with phytic acid (present in whole grains and beans) reduces zinc absorption.  High calcium may impair zinc absorption.  The requirement for zinc may be as much as 50% greater for strict vegetarians, whose major food staples are grains and legumes, as high levels of phytic acid decrease absorption.   Leavened (risen with yeast) breads, as well as fermented or sour dough and sprouted breads  have more bioavailable zinc due to action of phytases (enzymes that break down phytic acid).     Presence of cysteine and methionine (specific amino acids) in food improve zinc absorption.

            Signs of zinc deficiency include growth retardation, hair loss, diarrhea, delayed sexual maturation and impotence, eye and skin lesions, and loss of appetite.  Weight loss, delayed healing of wounds, taste abnormalities, and mental lethargy can also occur, in zinc deficiency.  Low zinc status has been observed in 30% to 50% of alcoholics. Alcohol decreases the absorption of zinc and increases loss of zinc in urine.  Diarrhea results in a loss of zinc. Individuals who have had gastrointestinal surgery or who have digestive disorders that result in malabsorption, including sprue, Crohn’s disease and short bowel syndrome, are at greater risk of a zinc deficiency. Maternal zinc deficiency can slow fetal growth.  Human milk does not provide recommended amounts of zinc for older infants between the ages of 7 and 12 months. Therefore, it has been recommended by health professionals that infants of this age should also consume age appropriate foods (and / or formula) containing zinc.

            Zinc toxicity has been seen in both acute and chronic forms. Intakes of 150 to 450 mg of zinc per day have been associated with low copper status, altered iron function, reduced immune function, and reduced levels of high-density lipoproteins (the good cholesterol). Additional information about zinc can be accessed online at http://dietary-supplements.info.nih.gov/factsheets/cc/zinc.html#signs, courtesy of the National Institutes of Health.

The RDA of zinc for the average adult male is 11 milligrams (mg) and 8 mg for the average adult woman. The tolerable upper limit (UL) has been set at 40 mg for adults.  The RDAs for children, pregnant, and lactating women and the UL for children and teenagers can be accessed at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us, courtesy of the Institute of Medicine.

Significant food sources of zinc (providing at least 10-20% of the average adult’s RDA) include 1 cup cooked oats, 1 cup cooked wild rice, ½ cup whole wheat flour, ½ cup buckwheat flour,  ½ cup whole grain corn meal, 1 cup cooked pearled barley, 1 ¼ cup buckwheat groats, 1 ¼ cup cooked bulgur, 1 cup cooked long grain brown rice, 1 ½ cup cooked long grain white rice, 1 cup cooked whole wheat spaghetti, 1 cup cooked quinoa, 1 cup cooked millet, 1 cup cooked lentils, 1 cup cooked chickpeas, 1 cup cooked black eyed peas, 1 cup cooked great northern beans, 160 grams soft tofu, 1 cup cooked navy beans, 1 cup cooked black beans, 1 cup cooked kidney beans, 1 cup cooked green soybeans, 1 cup cooked pinto beans, 1 cup cooked split peas, 1 cup cooked frozen green peas, 1 cup sprouted lentils,1 ¼ cup cooked corn, 1 cup cooked mushrooms, 1 cup cooked shiitake mushrooms, 2 large cucumbers, 2 cups cooked rutabaga, 2 cups cooked summer squash, 2 ¼ cups cooked winter squash, 2 cups cooked broccoli, 4 cups cooked kale, 3 cups cooked collards, 1 cup cooked spinach, 1 cup cooked frozen okra, 2 baked potatoes, 1 cup tomatoes, 2 tablespoons sesame tahini. 2 ½ tablespoons peanut butter or 1 ½ oz peanuts, 1/4 cup sunflower seeds, 1 oz pumpkin seeds, 1 oz pine nuts, 1 oz cashews, 1 oz brazil nuts, 1 oz pecans, 1 ½ oz walnuts, 1 ½ oz almonds, 1 oz cashews, 1 ½ cups roasted chestnuts, 1 ½ cups blackberries, 2 ¼ cups raspberries, 28.35 g (1 square) unsweetened baking chocolate, and 1 ½ tablespoons maple syrup. 

Specific amounts of zinc contained in a wide variety of common foods can be accessed at the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20, at http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869.  Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

 

Potassium (K) is an essential dietary mineral that is also known as an electrolyte (dissociates into ions in solution - capable of conducting electricity).  It is a cofactor for some enzymes needed for carbohydrate metabolism.

            In primitive cultures, salt intake was significantly lower than potassium intake. The relative deficiency of dietary potassium in the modern diet may play a role in the pathology of some chronic diseases.  Increased potassium intake has been associated with decreased risk of stroke and higher bone mineral density.   Increased potassium intake has been associated with decreased calcium excretion, decreased risk of kidney stones, and lower blood pressure.

Hypokalemia, an abnormally low blood plasma concentration of potassium, is not usually a result of low dietary intake of potassium, but is most commonly a result of excessive loss of potassium, such as from prolonged vomiting, the use of some diuretics, some forms of kidney disease, or from metabolic disturbances.  Symptoms of hypkalemia can include fatigue, muscle weakness and cramps, and intestinal paralysis, which may lead to bloating, constipation, and abdominal pain. Severe hypokalemia may result in muscular paralysis or abnormal heart rhythms that can be fatal.  Overuse or abuse of laxatives, anorexia nervosa, bulimia, magnesium depletion, and congestive heart failure can increase the risk of hypokalemia.  There have been reported cases of habitual consumption of large amounts of black licorice resulting in hypokalemia, due to the presence in licorice of glycyrrhizic acid, which occurs naturally in licorice and has a similar effect to a hormone produced by our bodies, aldosterone, which increases urinary excretion of potassium.

Abnormally elevated serum potassium concentrations, hyperkalemia, occurs when potassium intake exceeds the capacity of the kidneys to eliminate potassium.  Acute or chronic renal failure, the use of potassium-sparing diuretics, and insufficient aldosterone secretion may result in the accumulation of excess potassium, due to decreased urinary potassium excretion.  In addition to resulting from high oral doses, hyperkalemia may result from a shift of intracellular potassium into the circulation, as in the rupture of red blood cells or tissues (such as might result from severe burns or trauma).  Symptoms of hyerkalemia may include tingling of hands and feet, muscular weakness, and temporary paralysis.  The most serious complication of hyperkalemia is the development of an abnormal heart rhythm which can lead to cardiac arrest. 

Multivitamin / mineral supplements in the US do not contain more than 99 mg of potassium per serving.  The use of more potent potassium supplements in potassium deficiency requires dose monitoring of serum potassium concentrations.   The most common side effect of supplement use is gastrointestinal symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal discomfort, and diarrhea.  These side effects can be reduced by taking with meals or microencapsulated.  Additional information about potassium can be accessed online at http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/minerals/potassium/, courtesy of the Linus Pauling Institute, of Oregon State University.

The adequate intake of potassium for the average adult is 4700 milligrams (mg).  There is no established tolerable upper limit (but as mentioned above, when taking supplementation, one should be monitored by a doctor).  RDAs for children and lactating women can be found online at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us, courtesy of the Institute of Medicine.

Good food sources of potassium (providing at least 25% of the average adult’s adequate intake) include ½ cup tomato paste and 1 cup cooked beet greens.

Significant food sources of potassium (contributing 10--20%of the average adult’s adequate intake) include1 cup raisins, 10 deglet dates, 2 bananas, 2 cups watermelon, 1 ½ cups cantaloupe, 1 ½  cups honeydew, 2 ¼ cups blackberries, 1 cup raw orange juice, 1 ¼ cup grapefruit juice, 1 ¼ cups raw tomatoes, 1 baked potato, 1 cup cooked spinach.1 cup cooked artichokes, 1 cup cooked Brussels sprouts, 1 ¼ cups cooked broccoli, 2 ¼ cups cooked collards, 2 cups cooked kale, 1 cup Jerusalem artichokes. 1 ½ cups cooked carrots, 1 sweet potato, 1 cup cooked mushrooms, 1 cup cooked potato, 1 cup cooked  pak choi, 1 cup cooked pumpkin, 1 cup cooked parsnips, 1 cup cooked kohlrabi, 1 cup cooked rutabaga, 1 cup cooked beets, 1 ½ heads Boston lettuce, 1 cup cooked winter squash, 1 ¼ cup cooked frozen okra, 1 ½ cups cooked corn, 1 ¼  large cucumber, ½ cup edamame, 1 cup cooked black beans, ¾ cup cooked kidney beans, ¾ cup cooked pinto beans, ¾ cup cooked navy beans, ¾ cup cooked split peas, 1 cup cooked black eyed peas, ¾ cup cooked lentils, ¾ cup cooked great northern beans. 1 cup cooked chickpeas, 1 ¾  cup cooked quinoa, ¾ cup buckwheat flour, 1 cup whole wheat flour, and ¾ cup roasted chestnuts. 

Specific amounts of potassium contained in a wide variety of common foods can be found at the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20, at  http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869.  Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

 

Sodium (Na) contributes to the maintenance of concentration and charge differences across cell membranes and maintenance of blood volume and pressure.

            Hyponatremia, low sodium concentration in the blood serum, may result from increased fluid retention or increased sodium loss.  Excessive water intake and central nervous system disorders may lead to dilutional hyponatremia.  Conditions that increase the loss of sodium (and chloride) include severe or prolonged vomiting or diarrhea, excessive and persistent sweating, the use of some diuretics, and some forms of kidney disease. Symptoms include headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps, fatigue, disorientation, and fainting.  Complications of severe and rapidly developing hyponatremia may include cerebral edema (swelling of the brain), seizures, coma, and brain damage.  Acute or severe hyponatremia may be fatal without prompt, appropriate medical attention.

Excessive intakes of sodium chloride (salt) lead to an increase in extracellular fluid volume, as water is pulled from cells to maintain normal sodium concentrations.  However, as long as water needs can be met, normally functioning kidneys can excrete the excess sodium and restore the system to normal.  Ingestion of large amounts of salt may lead to nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps.  Abnormally high plasma sodium concentrations generally develop from excess water loss frequently accompanied by an impaired thirst mechanism or lack of access to water.  Symptoms in the presence of excess fluid loss may include dizziness or fainting, low blood pressure, and diminished urine production.  Hypernatremia may result in edema (swelling), hypertension, rapid heart rate, difficulty breathing, convulsions, coma, and death.  Information about sodium can be accessed on line at http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/minerals/sodium/, courtesy of the Linus Pauling Institute.

The adequate intake (AI) of sodium is set for the average adult at 1500 milligrams (mg) and the tolerable upper limit (UL) is set at 2300 milligrams (2.3 grams) per day of sodium, based on adverse effects of high sodium intake on blood pressure.  The UL may be lower for those most sensitive to the blood pressure effects of sodium, including the elderly, African Americans, and individuals with hypertension, diabetes, or chronic kidney disease.  The AI and UL for children and older adults can be accessed, courtesy of the Institute of Medicine, at http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:5FNYIQqpLLUJ:www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/21/372/0.pdf+dri+vitamin+chart+iom&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us.

Intake of sodium chloride in western industrialized cultures is significantly higher than the daily intake of potassium.   Most of the sodium we ingest comes from the addition of salt during food preparation or processing.  Table salt is a large contributor.  1 teaspoon of table salt contributes more than 100% of the sodium adequate intake for all groups.

Significant contributors of sodium (contributing at least 10% of the set adequate intake for the average adult) include 1 teaspoon shoyu – soy sauce made from soy and wheat, ½ dill pickle, 2/3 cup cooked beet greens, 1/8 cup miso – fermented soybean paste,  2 cups beets, 2 slices wheat bread, 2 cups cooked spinach, 2 cups soy milk,  2 cups cooked green peas, 2 ½ cups raw celery, 2 ½ cups cooked carrots,  and 3 rye wafers - crackers- 11g each. 

Specific amounts of sodium contained in a wide variety of common foods can be accessed on line at the web page for the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20, at http://www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=15869.. Nutrient profiles for specific foods can be accessed at http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/.

                                                    

Macronutrients

 

Carbohydrates all consist of a combination of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and are a major constituent of fruits, vegetables, grains and beans, and a lesser portion of the makeup of seeds and nuts.  Sugars and starches provide the body with energy in the form of glucose, the primary / preferred energy source for t